Press Release

A Hard Times Guide to Successful Vegetable Gardening
Parts 1- 6

The soaring cost of many basic food items, coupled with a general downturn in the economy, is enough to make the idea of growing your own food look appealing. For some, it can become a real necessity. Besides, homegrown vegetables often simply taste better.

At the same time, there are simple lessons to be learned before you can become a successful gardener. They are not complicated, for the most part, but can be mastered with a little care and attention. These lessons are the focus of this six-part series in which Extension Specialist Paul Lopes leads readers through the fine points of soil pH, growing tomatoes, raised beds, going organic, problem soils, and conserving water.

For more information, and copies of this entire series, contact:

Paul Lopes, Extension Specialist
University of Massachusetts
P.O. Box 569, East Wareham, MA 02538
508-295-2212 x24
lopes@umext.umass.edu

A Hard Times Guide to Successful Vegetable Gardening

Part  1 - Soil pH

Before you even begin planting, it's time to measure the pH of your soil.

The pH of the soil is a measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. Soil pH will affect nutrient availability to the growing plants. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Numbers less than 7 indicate acidity while numbers greater than 7 indicate alkalinity, says Paul Lopes, UMass Extension Specialist.

Most vegetables do best in slightly acidic soils (pH 5.8 to 6.5). Soil pH values above or below this range will result in less vigorous growth of the vegetable plants throughout the season.

Plants need food and these nutrients for healthy plant growth are divided into three categories: primary, secondary and micronutrients. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are primary nutrients needed in fairly large quantities compared to the other plant nutrients. Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S) are secondary nutrients required by the plant in lesser quantities, and micronutrients such as Zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn) in even lesser amounts. Most secondary and micronutrient deficiencies are easily corrected by keeping the soil at the optimum pH value.

To make soils less acidic, the common practice is to apply a material that contains some form of lime. Ground agricultural limestone is most frequently used. The finer the limestone particles, the more rapidly it works in the soil to change pH. Different soils will require a different amount of lime to adjust the soil pH value. The texture of the soil, organic matter content and the plants to be grown are all factors to consider in adjusting the pH value.

Gardeners can choose from three types of ground limestone products: pulverized, granular and pelletized. Pulverized lime is finely ground. Granular and pelletized lime are less likely to clog the spreader when spread with a fertilizer spreader but take more time to work in the soil. The finer the grind of the limestone the faster it will change the soil pH value.

The most important factor determining the effectiveness of lime is placement. Maximum contact of lime with the soil is essential. Most liming materials are only slightly soluble in water, so incorporation in the soil is a must. Even when properly mixed with the soil, lime will have little effect on pH if the soil is dry. Moisture is essential for the lime-soil reaction to occur.

Wood ashes can be used to raise soil pH. They contain small amounts of potassium, phosphate, boron and other elements. They are not as effective as limestone but with repeated use, they can drastically raise the pH value of a soil, especially if the soil is sandy in texture. If using wood ashes spread a thin layer during the winter months and incorporate into the soil in the spring. Check the soil pH annually especially if you use wood ashes.

If planting a vegetable garden for the first time and applying ground limestone in a newly turned soil, apply the limestone at a rate of 50 lbs per 1000 square feet. A soil test is the best way to determine the long-term requirements to correct the soil pH.

The University of Massachusetts Soil and Plant Tissue Testing Laboratory is located on the campus of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Testing services are available to all and information on submitting a soil sample for testing is available at www.umass.edu/plsoils/soiltest/

A Hard Times Guide to Successful Vegetable Gardening 

Part  2 – Growing Tomatoes

Success in growing tomatoes can be attributed to a few proven techniques. Start by choosing a variety that has been a proven performer. They are often found in garden centers or farm stands or by talking with experienced gardeners. In recent years there has been a lot of interest in heirloom varieties. In choosing heirloom varieties you should be aware these varieties are not likely to be resistant to verticillium wilt or fusarium wilt, common problems in growing tomatoes.

The VF designation, something to look for when purchasing tomato plants, means the tomato variety is resistance to verticillium wilt and/or fusarium wilt. These two problems often originate from your garden soil and can destroy a crop before you harvest a single tomato. In the end, it is best to experiment with several varieties in order to find the ideal tomato for your taste buds and growing conditions.

Use the best soil available to grow your tomato crop. In poor, sandy soils, adding peatmoss or other forms of organic matter in the top 6 to 9 inches of soil is an important step.

Lime and fertilizer should be added according to soil test recommendations. If no soil test has been taken, 3/4 cup of lime should be applied to each plant, along with fertilizer. The rate of fertilizer depends entirely on the type of fertilizer being used. Follow the recommendation on the fertilizer container. Lime will help reduce nutrient imbalances, particularly calcium and can help control blossom end rot that occurs so frequently on tomatoes.

Tomato plants should be spaced 1 1/2 to 2 ft apart in the row with 3 to 4 ft between rows. The planting hole should be deep enough to allow the entire root ball to be covered with one inch of soil. If the transplant is tall and leggy at time of planting, the trench planting method should be used. To trench plant a tomato plant, dig a horizontal trench rather than a hole for each plant. Next, remove all of the leaves from the plant except the top leaf cluster (4 to 5 leaves). Then lay the plant on its side in the trench and cover the root system and bare stem up to the top leaf cluster with 2 to 3 inches of soil. Firm the soil over the plant. Be sure not to press the soil too firmly around the stem where it comes out of the soil, as the stem may break.

Tomato plants should be staked or caged shortly after planting. A common 6-ft tomato stake may be purchased from many garden centers. The stake should be driven in the soil about one ft deep, 3 to 5 inches from the plant. Be sure to avoid driving the stake on the root side of plants that have been trench planted. Trench planted tomatoes should be staked immediately after planting while the location of the buried stem is fresh in your mind. Use a strip of cloth, nylon stocking, or heavy string to tie the plant to the stake.

Sidedress tomato plants with 2 to 3 Tbsp. per plant of a complete fertilizer such as 8-8-8 or
10-10-10 after the plants have started to set fruit and 4 to 6 weeks thereafter throughout the growing season. Keep the fertilizer 4 to 6 inches from the plant's stem to avoid fertilizer burn. Many successful gardeners use liquid/water soluble fertilizers, but whether you use granular or water soluble fertilizer, do not over do it. Too much fertilizer will result in lots of leaves and healthy looking plants, but fewer tomatoes.

For soil testing, the University of Massachusetts Soil and Plant Tissue Testing Laboratory is located on the Amherst campus of the University of Massachusetts. Testing services are available to all and information on submitting a soil sample for testing is available at www.umass.edu/plsoils/soiltest/

It is important to make sure the tomatoes receive sufficient water during the season. The soil should be soaked 6 to 8 inches deep at 7-day intervals. Mulches such as straw or composted leaves around the tomato plants will prove to be a real asset in conserving soil moisture during July and August.

Finally, have a prepared plan for dealing with the various insect and disease problems. Frequent observation of tomato plants for pest damage is the only way to stay ahead of nature.

A Hard Times Guide to Successful Vegetable Gardening

Part 3 – Raised Beds

Looking for a better way to grow vegetables this year? Consider constructing a raised bed. The advantages far outweigh the initial investment of time and money.

Most gardeners find that raised beds are easier to maintain and promote better plant growth. Walking in a garden causes soil compaction, which can cause problems with drainage and oxygen availability to plant roots. It's also more difficult to weed when soil is compacted. With a raised bed, you can plant, weed and harvest without ever walking on the soil.

Raised beds can be filled with high-quality soil, and it's easy to add compost or other organic matter. Long-rooted plants, such as carrots, do especially well in this environment, because there are no stones to hinder their development.

Plants in raised beds get more sun and air circulation and they can make better use of water. You often can plant earlier and harvest later, because raised beds warm up early in the spring and stay warm later in the fall.

Raised beds also make ideal places to grow plants that can be invasive in a regular garden – such as mints and horseradish. But ease and convenience is the benefit many gardeners appreciate the most. If you get a bad back and sore knees every year from gardening, a raised bed may put an end to those aches and pains.

Raised vegetable beds are excellent for gardeners who have trouble with their backs and older people who don't have limited flexibility. They are also excellent for people in wheelchairs or with other disabilities and those who don't want to spend the summer on their knees in the garden.

To install a raised bed, first choose a sunny location and decide on the size and shape you want. Some gardeners till the soil before building raised beds, to provide additional room for root development.

Construct the frame with a nontoxic building material, such as stone, cinder blocks, bricks, untreated wood or fiberglass. Some garden centers and catalogs now offer raised bed frames that snap together and can easily be taken apart.

Make sure the frame is between 12 and 16 inches high and is sturdy enough to hold together when filled with soil. If you use boards, they must be secured at the corners with metal braces or screws, or nailed to a reinforcing block of wood inside the corners – if you nail into the ends of boards, they will split.

Fill the frame with a good-quality lightweight soil mix and add a generous amount of compost. Avoid using soil straight from the garden. It usually is too heavy and doesn't allow for proper drainage.

A well-constructed raised bed should last for years, and soil fertility can be maintained by adding organic matter. Raised beds have been used for centuries and with good reason – they're better for many plants and they're easier on gardeners.

A Hard Times Guide to Successful Vegetable Gardening 

Part 4 –What is Organic Gardening?

For many years there has been considerable discussion, even among those claiming to be organic gardeners, as to exactly what constitutes organic gardening. In general, organic gardening differs from traditional gardening in two important ways: use of agricultural chemicals and use of artificial or processed fertilizers.

Organic gardening rejects the use of all artificial agricultural chemicals, including pesticides used to control insects, diseases and weeds. Organic gardeners differ concerning which, if any, naturally derived pesticides are permissible and when and how they may be used.

Most organic gardeners consider soils to be a living system and reject artificial chemical fertilizers as harmful to the soil and the environment. Organic gardeners emphasize building soil organic matter and then rely on natural sources of supplemental nutrients. Many people garden organically because of concern over pesticide residues on food.

Organic gardeners are usually willing to tolerate some damage that traditional agriculture perceives as reducing quality to the product. Organic gardeners generally feel occasional insect or disease injury or reduced color and shelf stability is worth the environmental benefits of growing vegetables organically.

There is little doubt that organic gardening improves soils because of the emphasis on increasing
soil organic matter. Increased soil organic matter improves soil tilth and structure, improves water
retention and evens out nutrient release.

Insect and disease control can be an issue. Some pest problems are easily controlled by organic alternatives. Others are controlled only with difficulty or have no reliable organic controls. Some crops  must be avoided by organic gardeners or these gardeners must be willing to risk significant losses from pests.

Careful timing of plantings is an excellent way to reduce the severity of some problems. Cutworms for example, tend to be more severe early in the spring, but decline as temperatures increase and rainfall decreases.

Several types of barriers can be used to prevent cutworms from reaching a plant or plants. Small paper or plastic cups with the bottoms removed, for example, can be pushed into the ground around young transplants to protect them from cutworms. Aluminum foil wrapped around young plants will serve the same purpose.

Exploring what nature is doing to your garden each day is the best way to prevent small problems from turning into big problems.

A Hard Times Guide to Successful Vegetable Gardening 

Part  5 – Problem Soils

Your garden soil may hold some secrets that can affect your health and your desire to grow vegetables in your back yard. The amount of lead in the soil, the pesticides that may have been used on your lawn and the ability of many vegetable crops to absorb these materials might be a concern.

At high concentrations, lead is a potentially toxic element to humans. For this reason, there is a need to be concerned about elevated lead levels in the environment, particularly in metropolitan areas. Background concentrations of lead that occur naturally in surface agricultural soils in the United States average 10 parts per million (ppm) with a range of 7 to 20 ppm. Soils with lead levels above this range are primarily the result of lead contamination.

There are two major sources of lead contamination: 1) lead-based paint where contamination may occur when paint chips from old buildings mix with the soil; and, 2) lead from auto emissions. Studies conducted in urban areas have shown that soil lead levels are highest around building foundations and within a few feet of busy streets. Although lead is not currently used in  paint or gasoline to any great extent, once lead has been deposited in the soil, it moves very slowly through the soil and can persist for a long time. Therefore, lead contamination of soils from these sources continues to be a concern.

To minimize absorption of lead by plants a number of control measures may be taken:

1. Maintain soil pH levels above 6.5. Lead is relatively unavailable to plants when the soil pH is above this level. If needed, add lime according to soil test recommendation. Lead is also less available when soil phosphorus tests are high. For information about obtaining a soil test, contact the UMass Soil and Plant Tissue Testing Laboratory, located on the campus of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Testing services are available to all and information on submitting a soil sample for testing is available at www.umass.edu/soiltest/
2. Add organic matter to your soil. In soils with high lead levels, adding one-third by volume organic matter will significantly reduce lead availability. Organic compounds bind lead and make it less available to the plant. When adding organic matter, the pH should also be maintained above 6.5. Good sources of organic matter include composted leaves, neutral (non-acid) peat, and well-rotted manure. Avoid leaf mulch obtained along highways or city streets as it may contain higher than normal lead levels.
3. Locate your garden as far away from busy streets or highways and older buildings as possible.
4. Because of the possibility of bare soil exposure to children through hand to mouth activity, soils with lead levels exceeding 100 ppm should not be used for gardening. If soil exposure to children is not a concern, then plants can be safely eaten from soils with soil lead levels up to 300 ppm.

Another concern is pesticides used in the past to kill pests that attack food crops, but in urban landscapes a variety of pesticides are used to control insect pests and manage weeds in lawns.

In general, pesticides differ based on their active ingredients, which may include organochlorines, organophosphates and pyrethroids. After a pesticide is applied, it may meet a variety of fates. It may be lost to the atmosphere through volatilization, carried away to surface waters by run off and erosion or broken down by photolysis (chemical decomposition due to exposure to sunlight). In the soil, it may be taken up by plants, degraded into other chemical forms or leached into the soil. Pesticides that are insoluble or tightly bound to soil particles are most likely retained in the upper soil layers, but may be lost to surface waters through leaching and erosion. The potential surface loss of pesticide depends on pesticide properties, soil type and the length of time after application.

Generally, pesticides do not concentrate in fruits and vegetables, but there is the rare exception. Trace amounts of organochlorine pesticides, such as DDT and chlordane are no longer used, but still are present in some garden soils, can concentrate in the oily parts (usually the seeds) of some vegetables. Organochlorine levels found in these soils are usually very low, about a few parts per billion. Even when concentrated in seeds, levels are not generally considered a health risk, but exposure should be avoided if possible.

By their very nature, most pesticides create some risk or harm to humans, animals or the environment. Pesticide residue in the garden soils, although less of a concern, maybe an issue for some. If you have developed a new garden site and recent history of the site indicates chemical pesticides were used frequently, you might pause to think a bit. Remember that most pesticides break down quickly.

There are numerous private testing laboratories that test soil samples for pesticide residues. Note: the soil testing laboratory at the University of Massachusetts tests only for plant nutrients and heavy metals. Keep in mind there is considerable cost for this type of analysis. It is best to identify or narrow the chemicals suspected to be present in the soil to reduce the cost of testing

A Hard Times Guide to Successful Vegetable Gardening 

Part  6 – Water Conservation

Regardless of whether Massachusetts experiences a dry summer or not this year, practicing water conservation in the garden is beneficial to both the homeowner and the environment. Consider that while over 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, less than 3% is freshwater available for human use.

Fruits and vegetables are 75% to 90% water and require regular irrigation, and there are steps gardeners can take to reduce the amount of water they use and apply it more efficiently.

One way to positively impact water conservation in the vegetable garden is to incorporate organic matter into the soil each year.  Organic matter improves water holding capacity of sandy soils and keeps clay soils (which have a tendency to become compacted) permeable to water.  Optimally, gardeners should aim to reach and maintain 4 to 5 percent organic matter in the vegetable garden.  How to do this?  Periodically working in aged animal manure or compost, leaf mold, untreated lawn clippings, or planting and tilling in a cover crop like winter rye or buckwheat are ways to increase the amount of organic matter present. 

Changing the way in which the vegetable garden is designed and planted can reduce watering. While germinating seeds and new transplants require frequent watering, arranging plants in blocks rather than single rows can conserve water as plants grow.  The leaves of plants grouped in blocks or wide rows shade a larger area of soil than do plants in a line.  This shading slows evaporation, making less frequent watering possible.  Shading also prevents development of weed seedlings which compete with vegetables for water resources.  A wide swath of plants means less wasted water when using overhead irrigation since more of the water falls onto a planted area, rather than on pathways between individual rows.

Once the soil has warmed up, mulching around plants retains soil moisture and cuts down on the appearance of water pilfering weeds.  Apply a 2 to 3-inch layer of mulch (such as straw, shredded leaves, newspaper, and untreated grass clippings) around plants.  More is not necessarily better; too thick a mulch layer may actually prevent water from reaching plant roots.

Being conscious of how and when the garden needs to be irrigated will help gardeners move toward conserving water.  Vegetable plants should be watered according to need, not necessarily according to a set schedule.  Just as one might check a houseplant for watering needs by poking a finger in the pot soil, examine the garden soil—if the top 2 inches are dry, it’s time to water.

Too much water can be detrimental to vegetables, creating an environment favorable for disease and pests like slugs and snails, but plants do require adequate moisture during critical times in their life cycle: during the first few weeks of development, immediately after transplanting, and during development of the edible plant parts.
Instead of frequent shallow sprinklings that can result in poor root development and consequently less drought resistance, give vegetables one or two long soakings per week (as needed).

Make time spent irrigating worthwhile: apply water during cooler morning hours when it is less likely to evaporate, and direct water to the base of the plant, where it is needed—a plant can only use water that comes in contact with its roots, not its leaves.

By changing the water delivery system from a hose or sprinkler to drip irrigation or soaker hoses, your garden’s need for water can be reduced up to 50%. Overhead watering spreads water to pathways and areas not used by plants whereas drip irrigation directs water to the roots where it is needed.